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Metal, machinery, and related trades workers: skills opportunities and challenges (2023 update)
Summary
In 2021, European manufacturing accounted for more than 16 per cent of gross value added in the EU economy. Metal, machinery, and related trades workers (henceforth metal workers), who mainly work in the manufacturing sector, account for around 4 per cent of all employment in the EU. These workers are important to the achievement of the ambitions of the European Union towards low-carbon steel production and circular products development.
Metal workers fulfil various roles in the formation of metal ore and, in building and repairing heavy metal structures, and in repairing of machinery -such as engines and vehicles. Furthermore, they also produce various other metal products. Jobs within this group include metal moulders, coremakers, welders, flame cutters, cable splicers, metal structure dismantling workers, blacksmiths, locksmiths, metal polishers, tool sharpeners, and vehicle mechanics and repairers.
Key facts
- Around 7.4 million people were employed as metal workers in 2022, which accounts for around 4 per cent of the overall EU employment in 2022.
- Between 2012 and 2022 metal worker employment decreased slightly. Over the same period employment across all occupations in the EU increased by almost eight per cent.
- Between 2019 and 2020, when the EU experienced lockdowns in many sectors including the metal manufacturing sector, 117 thousand metal worker jobs were lost. By the end of 2022, employment was still 98 thousand workers short of the pre Covid-19 level.
- Most of the metal workers – 59 per cent in 2021 - are employed in the manufacturing sector.
- More than two thirds of metal workers (70 per cent) have attained a qualification level of ISCED 3 and 4 in 2021, equivalent to the education level achieved after completing upper secondary education. The qualification level of the occupation is not expected to change over the period to 2035.
- Metal workers are mainly men. In 2021, just 4 per cent of metal workers were women.
- The employment of metal workers is projected to decline slightly between 2022 and 2035, while overall employment is forecast to increase somewhat over the same period.
- By 2035, the employment of metal workers will decline by more than half a million. Despite that, a large number of job openings - estimated at 4 million - will be available, because of workers leaving the job market. This means that an estimated 3.5 million job openings will need to be filled between 2022 and 2035.
- Technological developments in the manufacturing sector, in particular in metal manufacturing, will automate some tasks and facilitate low-carbon steelmaking, driving changes in the metal workers’ skills required in the future. Current shortages across various metal workers’ jobs make meeting future replacement needs more difficult.
Employment and job demand
Employment trends for metal workers were similar to all craft and related trade workers in the past decade, but during the Covid-19 pandemic, the job loss was a bit milder, and in 2022, perhaps as a result of the impact of the war in Ukraine (which affected the metal industry greatly), their employment declined again.
Figure 1: Year-to-year employment change for metal workers (2013-2022)
Source: European Labour Force Survey. Employed persons by detailed occupation (ISCO-08 two digit level) [LFSA_EGAI2D__custom_7778289]. Own calculations.
About half (47 per cent) of metal workers are engaged as machinery mechanics and repairers, i.e. workers who install, maintain and repair engines, vehicles and mechanical equipment. This includes cars, agricultural machinery and equipment, industrial machinery, and similar mechanical equipment.
About a third of metal workers (28 per cent) are engaged as blacksmiths, toolmakers, and related trade workers. People employed in these jobs hammer and forge iron, steel and other metals to make and repair various kinds of tools, operate various machine tools working to fine tolerances, and polish and sharpen metal surfaces and tools.
In total, 22 per cent of metal workers are engaged as sheet and structural metal workers, moulders and welders, and related workers. These are workers who make moulds and cores for casting metal, cast, weld and shape metal parts, make and repair sheet steel, copper, tin, or brass; and develop and repair heavy metal structures.
Over the period from 2016 to 2021, the share of employment accounted for by Machinery mechanics and repairers has increased by seven percentage points, while the share of the other two occupations has declined by about 3 percentage points each.
Figure 2: Employment in metal worker jobs (in %)
Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.
In online job advertisements, these occupations hold shares similar to their employment. While trades workers' jobs may not be sufficiently covered by the OJAs, metalworkers' job postings are relatively frequent, as Cedefop's Skills OVATE tool illustrates.
Figure 3: Online job advertisements for metal workers (2022, in %)
Source: Skills in Online Job Advertisements indicator based on Cedefop’s Skills OVATE. Own calculations. Note: Online job advertisements are by definition not equivalent to job vacancies. See Beręsewicz (2021) or Napierala et al. (2022).
The manufacturing sector employs the majority of metal workers. In 2016, 61 per cent of metal workers were employed in the manufacturing sector. This has slightly decreased in 2021 (see Figure 4). The wholesale and retail trade sector is the only other sector with a significant number of metal workers, accounting for 23 per cent of their employment in 2016, and remaining almost unchanged in 2021.
Figure 4: The top sectors employing metal workers (in %)
Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.
As regards the share of metal workers within sectoral employment, these workers form a significant portion of the workforce in the manufacturing sector. In 2021, metal workers constituted the largest occupation within this sector, accounting for 14 per cent of its employment.
This is also why metalworkers have the highest employment share in central European countries, where the manufacturing industry is traditionally very strong (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Metal workers as a share of overall country employment (2021, in %)
Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.
Note: Data for CY, EE, IS, LV and LU have lower reliability because of the small sample size. LFS data for MT are not available.
The workforce is composed mainly of men. In 2016, only 4 per cent of metal workers were women compared to 46 per cent in the economy as a whole. In 2021, female employment did not change much.
Metalworkers are among occupations that are ageing relatively fast (Figure 6). In 2016, 29 per cent of metal workers were aged 50 to 64 years old compared to 23 per cent across all occupations. By 2021, the share of metal workers in this age group had increased to 31 per cent, while the share across all occupations had increased to 28 per cent.
Figure 6: Metal workforce by age (in %)
Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.
The share of metal workers employed via temporary contracts did not differ from the share across all occupations in 2016 (see Figure 7). Part-time employment is relatively less widespread among metal workers than among all occupations.
Figure 7: Contract and hiring trends for metal workers (in %)
Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.
Skill needs and future trends
As with other industrial/construction occupations, metalworkers' tasks involve significant manual and hazardous work. They also stand out among other manual workers because of the higher need for innovative thinking, and even advanced mathematical tasks or the use of specialised software. They also tend to have relatively high upskilling needs, including those aimed at digital technologies.
Figure 8: Skills, training needs and job perception of metal workers (in %)
Source: European Skills and Jobs Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.
Unless stated otherwise, it is a share of people reporting that a task/skill is part of their job.
*Always or often
** Share of workers reporting these needs to a great or moderate extent.
Cedefop’s Skills forecast provides a detailed view of the future demand for metal workers. Overall, employment for metal workers is expected to decline by more than 500 thousand over the period 2022 to 2035. This means that, compared to 2022, there will be about 524 thousand less metal worker jobs.
Future employment decreases will occur across most of the analysed countries, but employment change will vary country by country. Figure 9 compares the employment growth experienced over the relatively recent past to that projected to take place in the future. Employment in five countries (Ireland, Iceland, Poland, Portugal, Spain) grew in the past decade and it is forecast to do so in the next decade as well. Ireland and Iceland are among those with the highest past and expected future growths, while especially Greece and Slovakia represent the opposite trend.
Figure 9: Past and expected future employment trend of metal workers
Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Cedefop Skills Forecast.
Note: Data for CY, EE, IS, LV and LU have lower reliability because of the small sample size. LFS data for MT are not available.
New job creation or loss is, however, not the main driver behind job demand. Most job openings are a result of people leaving them for other opportunities, or those leaving the labour market completely (retirements; parent leave, etc.). The replacement demand for metal workers is quite significant, as it is estimated at 4 million (Figure 10). Meeting this future demand may be challenging given the level of labour shortages currently reported for various metal worker jobs (see below).
Overall, when forecast job loss is added to the replacement demand, an estimated almost 3.5 million job openings for metal workers will need to be filled between 2022 and 2035.
Figure 10: Future job openings for metal workers (000s)
Source: Future job openings indicator based on the Cedefop Skills forecast. Own calculations.
About 70 per cent of metal workers held medium-level qualifications in 2021 (i.e. at ISCED levels 3 or 4). This is not projected to change much by 2035. The share of workers with low levels of qualification (ISCED level 2 or lower) is projected to fall from 20 per cent in 2022 to 14 per cent in 2035, while the share of highly qualified workers (i.e. those qualified at ISCED level 5 and over) is projected to increase from 9 per cent to 13 per cent over the same period.
Looking forward
The majority of metal and machinery workers (59 per cent in 2021, see sections above) are occupied in the manufacturing sector, particularly in metal manufacturing. A recent Cedefop (2023) report examined the evolving skill requirements for the metal manufacturing sector and identified various key factors that are likely to shape future employment demand in the sector, and, to a large extent, for metal and machinery workers.
- As with many industries, the use of innovative technologies is likely to increase in the metalworking industry. This leads to a structural reconfiguration of adequate skillsets for metal workers, as roles including repetitive tasks are more subject to automation. Robotics and automation are being increasingly used in the metalworking industry to improve efficiency, reduce waste, and improve quality. This includes the use of robots for welding, cutting and other repetitive tasks, as well as automated systems for material handling and quality control (ESSA, 2021). Digitalisation and Industry 4.0 are also transforming the metalworking industry in Europe to create a more connected, efficient, and flexible manufacturing ecosystem. This entails the use of advanced sensors and data analytics to optimise production processes and the integration of various systems across the supply chain. The automotive industry is developing and using technological innovations in production, like autonomous in-plant logistics, simulation, augmented and virtual reality. The Industry 4.0 technologies are replacing traditional qualification profiles (e.g. metalworking or machine-building) in the auto-industry (Drahokoupil, 2020). Also, additive manufacturing (3D printing) is an innovative technology increasingly used in the metalworking industry. It allows to produce complex and customized metal parts using technologies like material extrusion, binder jetting, powder bed fusion and directed energy deposition. These technologies optimise manufacturing processes and have the potential to assist in the green transition of the metal industry (Armstrong et al, 2022).
- Initiatives related to the European Green Deal (EGD) will also affect the future skills of metal workers. The Green Deal Industrial Plan (2023) aims to accelerate the transition to net-zero industry through actions on four pillars: simplified regulatory environment; better access to finance; skills development; and open trade for resilient supply chains. Energy-intensive industries (e.g. chemicals, refining and cement alongside iron and steel) will play a key part in fulfilling this EU strategic vision. Within the green transition framework of the European industrial ecosystem, innovations in the steel sector are streamlined by the Clean Steel partnership. The partnership seeks to develop climate neutral solutions for steel production and reduce carbon emissions by 80-95 per cent in 2050 compared to the 1990 levels. The key to decarbonising the steel industry lies in its ability to transition from coal to renewables, such as hydrogen. This implies a different setup and utilisation of the energy sources within the steel production, hence, requiring up- and re-skilling of metal and machinery workers to ensure that steel production can continue to decarbonise (Kurrer, 2020) (an example of an innovative carbon neutral steel production plant from Sweden is presented in the box below).
Europe’s first commercial green steel plant to open in Sweden Green Steel has started production at Europe’s first green steel plant in Boden, Northern Sweden. Using hydrogen to replace coal, the company hopes to roll out the first batches of steel by 2025. The green steel will be created by using hydrogen to react with iron ore, producing only water vapour. H2 Green Steel will produce its own green hydrogen using water from a nearby river. The electricity required for electrolysis and the running of the plant will be provided by nearby renewable resources including hydropower from the Lule river and wind parks in the region. The process promises to cut emissions by 95 per cent compared to the traditional steelmaking. Currently, steel production accounts for 7 per cent of the total global greenhouse gas emissions. The steel is produced using a direct reduction reactor instead of a blast furnace, producing sponge iron and water. H2 Green Steel spun off from Northvolt, which makes batteries to power the energy transition, as the company sought more sustainable steel to use in manufacturing. H2 Green Steel hopes the factory will produce five million tonnes of steel by 2030. According to the World Steel Association, global crude steel production in 2021 was 1,951 million tonnes. In addition to producing green hydrogen for its own use, the company also seeks to export it as a resource for heavy industry. By 2050, hydrogen is expected to account for 10 per cent of the global energy consumption. H2 Green Steel is developing the Boden plant amid a growing interest in the production of green steel. The company has already signed an agreement with the Spanish company Iberdrola to build a plant powered by solar power in the Iberian peninsula. Hybrit, another Swedish company, hopes to open a fossil-free green steel plant by 2026 in a joint venture with the mining operator LKAB, Nordic steel company SSAB and the energy company Vattenfall. In Japan, Nippon Steel has plans for a green steel plant, while competitor projects in France and Germany are also under way. Source: Florence Jones for Mining Technology, 22 February 2023 |
- The European steel industry needs also to increase the use of recycled materials (in 2020, 44 per cent percent of the whole steel produced in the EU was made through the recycling route) and speed up the transition to renewable energy sources (Somers, 2022). Proposals like the right to repair (European Commission, 2023a) increasingly foster circular economy principles by creating a framework that encourages the reuse and repair of consumer products. This implies an increasing need for mechanics and fitters. Renewable energies, in combination with breakthrough technologies that rely on hydrogen or electricity to reduce iron ore, will encourage low carbon production in the metal industry (Somers, 2022). Besides the decarbonisation of the industrial ecosystem, it will also be tasked with advancing innovative materials used for clean technologies. Recently, regulatory changes were introduced to establish the best available techniques (BAT) in industrial emissions for the ferrous metals processing industry (European Commission, 2022), which sets norms on air, water, and soil emissions, the use of technology and the design of new facilities. This implies a potential for new jobs for metal workers, who will need to produce wind turbines and solar panels, and to install and maintain energy-efficient building systems (McKinsey & Company, 2022). In relation to the new norms on energy systems (e.g. hydrogen), the use of resource models (e.g. circularity) the increased use of technologies and digitalisation of jobs in the steel industry, will also change significantly the working conditions, which will generally become safer. In the light of this, updated regulations will set new training requirements for workers in health and safety matters (Cedefop, 2023).
- A shortage of metal workers potentially threatens the number of projected job openings to 2035 being filled. A recent report by the European Labour Authority found shortages in various metal worker jobs across several Member States. These include welders and flame cutters, agricultural and machinery mechanics, motor vehicle mechanics and repairers, metal working machine tool setters, and toolmakers and related workers. Welders and flame cutters are also cited as being in severe shortage.
Metal and machinery workers will face substantial changes in their occupational sectors due to the digital and green transition. Ensuring sufficient and adequate supply of workers in industrial ecosystems going through profound changes is not an easy task. The level of skills required for these jobs (ESCO Skill level 2) – such as (relatively advanced) literacy and numeracy skills and interpersonal skills, to be able to operate, maintain and repair electrical and mechanical equipment – is most often acquired by the completion of secondary education, in some cases in combination with vocational education and on-the-job training. The importance of upskilling initiatives to make sure that the workforce in the metal manufacturing sector (in which many metal and machinery workers are occupied) is equipped with the right skills while benefiting from good working conditions is noted in both the 2018 Directive for cost-effective emission reductions and low-carbon investments and the more recent Clean Steel initiative.
For example, in the German dual education system, apprenticeship for Metal Process Technologist will lead to a job in either metallurgy and forming plant, a blast furnace or steel plant, a hot or cold rolling mill, a metal refinery etc. To enter the apprenticeship programme, which takes about three years to finish, the future metal workers need to have a high school diploma. Metal process technologists control iron and steel production plants, keep production logs, evaluate operating data and rectify faults in the production processes. From a theoretical perspective, the vocational education programme for these workers includes mathematical basic knowledge on technologies and production (incl. sizes, units, line and angle measurements etc.), and calculation of frictional and shearing force, and contact pressure. In addition, students will learn about the properties of metals and materials and how to distinguish them, as well as health and recycling standards. Knowledge on these topics is combined with on the job training at a company, to acquire practical skills in the functioning of machines (control and regulation, drive, support and carrying, storing, forming, converting, etc). Further competences are gradually acquired in screwing, soldering, welding, fusion welding and thermal cutting.
In addition to initial training, metal and machinery workers will need to upgrade their existing skillsets throughout their careers under the lifelong learning paradigm that is steadily fostered in the EU. Micro-credentials are an example of such constantly improving upskilling initiatives. Micro-credentials are certified short-term learning experiences that allow to acquire further knowledge, skills and competences on specific themes. They are mostly organised in the most flexible way possible – often online – to be accessible for people who need to combine educational goals with professional lives.
The Blueprint sectoral skills alliances are a flagship initiative aimed at future skills development on the level of an industry ecosystem through collaboration of various stakeholders like businesses, trade unions, research institutions, education and training institutions, and public authorities. The Skills4AM (Skills for Additive Manufacturing) sectoral alliance aims to address the need for an effective system to identify and anticipate the right skills for the additive manufacturing sector demands. Their regularly advertise education and training offers (for instance, in International Metal AM Coordinator Advanced Training Course, or Metal AM Binder Jetting process) and run a network of national authorised bodies, which offer courses.
Concerning digitalisation aspects of the metal industry, the Fit4FoF project analyses technology trends across industrial ecosystems and compiles continuous education opportunities related to sectoral digitalisation. Their Digital Upskilling Initiatives Catalogue compiles and updates a selection of courses for advancing of digital competences.
How to cite this publication
Cedefop (2023). Metal, machinery and related trades workers: skills opportunities and challenges. Skills intelligence data insight.
Further reading
Armstrong, M., Mehrabi, H., Naveed, N. (2022). ‘An overview of modern metal additive manufacturing technology’, in Journal of Manufacturing Processes, Vol. 84, pp. 1001-1029
Beręsewicz, M. and Pater, R. (2021). Inferring job vacancies from online job advertisements, Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-statistical-working-papers/-/ks-tc-20-008
Drahokoupil, J. (2020). ‘The challenge of digital transformation in the automotive industry: Jobs, upgrading and the prospects for development’, European Trade Union Institute, Brussels
ESSA (European Steel Skills Agenda) (2021). ‘Digital Transformation in European Steel Industry: State of the Art and Future Scenario’. Blueprint ‘’New Skills Agenda Steel’’, Deliverable D2.1 (Version 2), published 31 July 2021
European Commission (2019). The European Green Deal. COM(2019) 640 final.
European Commission (2022) Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2022/2110 establishing the best available techniques (BAT) conclusions, for the ferrous metals processing industry. L284/69. Official Journal of the EU
European Commission (2023). A Green Deal Industrial Plan for the Net-Zero Age. COM(2023) 62 final
European Commission (2023a). Proposal for a Directive… on common rules promoting the repair of goods and amending Regulation (EU) 2017/2394, Directives (EU) 2019/771 and (EU) 2020-1828. COM(2023) 155 final
European Labour Authority (2021). Report on labour shortages and surpluses.
McKinsey & Company (2022). ‘The raw-materials challenge: How the metals and mining sector will be at the core of enabling the energy transition’, in McKinsey & Company: Metals and Mining, article, published 10 January 2022
Napierala, J.; Kvetan, V. and Branka, J. (2022). Assessing the representativeness of online job advertisements. Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop working paper, No 17. http://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/807500
Somers, J. (2022). ‘Technologies to decarbonise the EU steel industry’. Publications Office of the EU: Luxembourg
Data insights details
Table of contents
Page 1
SummaryPage 2
Employment and job demandPage 3
Skill needs and future trendsPage 4
Looking forwardPage 5
Further reading