Cedefop newsletter

Comparability aims to identify differences and similarities between qualifications, while recognition focuses on validating learning and skills acquired in diverse contexts, often granting access to employment or further education. Over the decades, Cedefop has been a key driver in this evolving landscape, shaping both the conceptual framework and the work of relevant stakeholders.

First, recognition

From the outset, the EU’s foundational treaties prioritised the free movement of workers and mutual recognition of qualifications. Initially, the focus was on recognition. The 1963 Council Decision on a common vocational training policy emphasised the harmonisation of basic requirements and mutual recognition of qualifications as key objectives for Community action. The term “comparability” was introduced in the 1974 Council resolution on the mutual recognition of diplomas, certificates, and other evidence of formal qualifications. 
In this context, Cedefop’s 1975 founding directive underscored its central role in addressing the recognition of diplomas, emphasising the Centre’s activity in dealing with 'the problem of the approximation of standards of vocational training with a view to the mutual recognition of certificates and other documents attesting completion of vocational training'. 
In 1978, Cedefop, in collaboration with the Commission and the Advisory Committee for Vocational Training, began work on recognition of qualifications, starting with a common framework for training levels. The proposal envisaged a division into five levels (semi-skilled workers, workers, skilled workers, technicians, higher technicians, and graduates), which involved comparing approximately 50 occupations across key sectors such as: electrical/electronic, hotel/catering, construction, vehicle repair and agriculture, horticulture and forestry.

The 1985 milestone, a shift to comparability

Building on Cedefop’s foundational work, the 1985 Council Decision (85/368/EEC) addressed the comparability of vocational training qualifications among the Member States of the European Community. The decision introduced five training levels, each with key activities, serving as a general framework for levels of attainment. These levels combined structural elements, required inputs, and job descriptions, de facto shifting the focus from mutual recognition to comparability, while emphasising the formulation of occupational requirements. This approach, providing information to ensure clarity as to the types and levels of knowledge and skills certified by particular qualifications, rather than attempting to standardise training, was deemed more practical.

Following this decision, Cedefop embarked on establishing a foundation for achieving comparability in vocational training qualifications, developing terminology charts and glossaries, and conducting various studies. This effort resulted in complex arrangements among Member States, Cedefop, and the European Commission, leading to the creation of comparability tables for each occupation, with detailed descriptions, titles, types of institutions, and legal responsibilities for certification. However, this approach proved inefficient and labour-intensive, ultimately failing to meet expectations. The methods diverged from the practices of Member States.

Towards learning outcomes, the EQF and beyond

In the 1990s and early 2000s, the focus shifted from comparing inputs and structures to comparing outputs and learning outcomes. Parallel discussions on lifelong learning, transparency, quality assurance, and mutual trust intensified.
These discussions laid the groundwork for comparison and eventual recognition of qualifications. This shift culminated in 2008 with the adoption of the Recommendation on the establishment of the European Qualifications Framework (EQF), repealing the 1985 Council decision. The EQF introduced a set of common reference levels based on learning outcomes rather than specific education and training structures.

Since 2008, European cooperation has significantly advanced, leading to the development of European tools that enhance transparency in education systems and qualifications while promoting a learning outcomes-based approach. Building on these transparency tools and elements for comparing qualifications, as well as ongoing conceptual work, Cedefop continues to work on the comparability and recognition of qualifications across Europe.

While apprenticeships have traditionally been associated with manual trades, they are now increasingly expanding into high-growth areas such as cybersecurity, fintech, green technologies, healthcare, education, and insurance. This adaptability is central to their growing relevance in the EU’s efforts to close skills gaps, promote lifelong learning, and ensure fair transitions in a changing economy.

Apprenticeships offer hands-on, real-world experience that enables faster adaptation to evolving skill needs, said Cedefop Executive Director Jürgen Siebel. They provide an alternative pathway to traditional education, opening opportunities for a broader, more diverse range of learners—both young and adult—to build careers in high-opportunity sectors.

Apprenticeships evolve: from trades to tech, health, and green jobs

Evidence shared at the recent OECD-Cedefop symposium New Fields for Apprenticeship highlights how new programmes are emerging across the EU and beyond, addressing pressing labour shortages and future-proofing the workforce. For instance, in France, apprenticeships are helping address acute staffing needs in healthcare, with enrolments in health-related programmes increasing by over 500% between 2019 and 2023, according to OPCO Santé.

For employers, apprenticeships offer a strategic response to skill shortages. Analysis of online job ads across Europe shows that many of the competencies demanded in sectors like cybersecurity and educational technology (edtech) align well with apprenticeship training models.

Real-world learning for real-world impact

For learners, the benefits are equally compelling. In Ireland, graduates of an insurance degree apprenticeship reached the national average salary within four years. In the United States, apprenticeship graduates in ICT nearly tripled their pre-enrolment earnings, while those in healthcare nearly doubled them.

Moreover, the expansion of apprenticeships into new sectors supports inclusion and access. Programmes in areas such as computing in Scotland have successfully attracted school leavers, career changers, and upskillers—demonstrating how apprenticeships can offer flexible, sustainable learning paths that combine education with employment.

Scaling success: partnerships, policy, and quality matter

Across Europe, the development of new apprenticeship programmes is being driven by diverse actors—from business-led consortia in Ireland to state initiatives in Hungary and regional partnerships in Italy. Regardless of who initiates them, shared governance and structured collaboration between governments, employers, education providers, and social partners consistently emerge as critical success factors.

Yet, challenges remain. The rollout of a unified nursing apprenticeship programme in Germany, for example, revealed key issues related to trainer capacity and the quality assurance of workplace learning. Ensuring sufficient support structures and standards will be essential as more sectors adopt the apprenticeship model.

To guide this expansion, EU policy makers can draw on tools such as the European Framework for Quality and Effective Apprenticeships and the ILO Recommendation on Quality Apprenticeships. These frameworks provide concrete benchmarks for designing inclusive, responsive, and high-quality programmes that benefit learners, employers, and society.

As El Iza Mohamedou, Head of the OECD Centre for Skills, stated: Evidence shows that apprenticeships can work across sectors and levels, offering strong pathways into quality employment. With continued monitoring, evaluation, and strategic communication, the value of apprenticeships—especially in non-traditional fields—can be better understood and more widely embraced across Europe.

The apprenticeships’ growing role in addressing skill shortages, supporting transitions, and widening access to opportunity makes them a cornerstone of Europe’s skills agenda.

To meet evolving industry demands, VET teachers themselves must continuously upskill and adapt to new teaching methods and technologies. Ensuring access to high-quality continuing professional development (CPD) is not only crucial for educators but also for the success of their students and the broader socio-economic fabric of Europe.

While the importance of CPD is widely acknowledged, there remains limited comparable evidence across the EU regarding its effectiveness, key drivers, and challenges. To bridge this gap, Cedefop has launched the European Vocational Teacher Survey (EVTS), a groundbreaking initiative designed to provide insights into the opportunities, experiences, and barriers shaping VET teachers' CPD. Beyond enhancing teaching skills, CPD fosters inclusive learning environments where all students, regardless of background, can thrive.

Supporting VET teachers – supporting the future workforce

VET teachers ensure the quality and relevance of vocational education. Recognising their strategic role, EU policies emphasize the need for continuous professional growth and improved working conditions. The Osnabrück Declaration highlights the empowerment of VET teachers as a key pillar of European education and training systems, promoting lifelong learning and innovation. Similarly, the Council Recommendation on Pathways to School Success underscores the importance of strong teacher support to enhance inclusion in education and reduce early school leaving.

For decades, Cedefop has been at the forefront of VET teacher development, conducting research, fostering peer learning, and providing interactive toolkits. Collaborating closely with national and EU stakeholders, Cedefop examines CPD governance across 27 EU Member States, plus Iceland and Norway, mapping national policies and approaches to initial and ongoing professional development. Its research delves into the evolving role of VET teachers, the challenges they face, and the support they require, particularly in times of crisis, such as the COVID-19 pandemic and the refugee influx resulting from the war in Ukraine.

From the classroom up: amplifying the voices of European VET teachers

The EVTS aims to deepen the understanding of how VET teachers develop professionally and how their working conditions can be improved. By collecting detailed and comparable data across the EU, the survey will help shape national and European policies, that enhance CPD opportunities, address teacher shortages, and make VET teaching a more attractive career path.

Key insights to be generated by the EVTS:

• participation rates of VET teachers in different CPD activities;
• factors that support and hinder their engagement in CPD;
• variations in CPD participation based on individual, teaching, and school-related factors;
• the impact of CPD on VET teachers' skills, teaching performance, and overall well-being.

The survey will be conducted from October 2025 to June 2026, with initial findings expected in 2027. It will target a representative sample of 14,000 teachers working in ISCED level 3 initial VET schools across 23 European countries. To support the planning and implementation of the EVTS, Cedefop has established an EVTS stakeholder group, composed of representatives from national authorities in participating EU Member States, members of the European Trade Union Committee for Education (ETUCE), and the European Federation of Education Employers (EFEE).

By amplifying the voices of VET teachers, the EVTS will contribute to stronger policies and enhanced professional development opportunities. This initiative will ultimately drive positive change in vocational education, ensuring that Europe’s workforce remains skilled, adaptable, and inclusive in the face of future challenges.

In 2023, the not-in-employment, education, or training (NEET) rate for women stood at 12.5% (compared to 10.1% for men); a rate which the European Union aims to reduce to 9% by 2030. In some EU Member States, the NEET rate for women exceeds that of men by over 10 percentage points, with this disparity widening as age increases.

Globally, two out of three NEETs are female, highlighting a structural gender bias. Women often face additional challenges in employment, education, and training, including family responsibilities, difficulties re-entering the workforce after childbirth, and a higher likelihood of engaging in precarious work. Addressing and overcoming these barriers is critical to ensuring young women have equal access to education and career opportunities.

Understanding female NEETs needs

Young women, particularly young mothers, are more likely than men to leave education or remain outside the workforce due to the unequal burden of caregiving responsibilities. This dynamic contributes to a widening NEET gender gap over time, as limited access to childcare and structural labour market inequalities further strain women's work-life balance.
To effectively support female NEETs, policy makers and stakeholders must first understand the unique challenges women face, including systemic barriers and structures not designed to meet their needs. Gender-disaggregated NEET data analysis is essential for designing targeted outreach and activation measures. Successful initiatives focus on addressing individual needs, building trust, and empowering young women to regain control over their educational and career paths.  

Several EU policy frameworks have been designed to support NEETs. Most notably, the European Youth Guarantee, aims to ensure that all young people receive a quality job offer, continued education, an apprenticeship or a traineeship within four months of leaving formal education or becoming unemployed. Additionally, the European Pillar of Social Rights, Principle 4 - Active support to employment - states that young people have the right to continued education, apprenticeship, traineeship or a job offer of good standing within four months of becoming unemployed or leaving education.

Vocational education and training: a sustainable pathway for female NEETs

Vocational education and training (VET) can serve as a sustainable pathway for female NEETs, offering opportunities for reskilling, employment, and long-term career growth. However, its impact depends, among other factors, on flexibility. Integrating part-time training, adaptable learning options, and offering accessible and affordable childcare support so women can take part in VET programmes is essential to ensuring accessibility and long-term career growth.

Through research, peer learning and the online VET toolkit for empowering NEETs Cedefop equips policy makers and practitioners with valuable resources to support NEETs. The toolkit identifies at-risk profiles, in addition to risk factors such as early motherhood, and offers good practices, tools, and intervention approaches for effective workforce integration.
The toolkit comprises:

• Outreach strategies to engage female NEETs and facilitate their transition into training and employment.
• Skills development aligned with labour market needs.
• Tailored support mechanisms such as mentorship, career guidance, and flexible training options.
• Recognition of non-formal and informal learning, to ensure women's prior skills and experiences are valued.

Investing in young women, including NEETs, is not only a matter of social equity but also an economic necessity. By empowering young women through VET and targeted support, employers can access a more diverse and skilled workforce, improving productivity and competitiveness. Reducing the female NEET rate also helps tackle labour market imbalances, ensuring a more resilient and sustainable economy.

With the right policies, partnerships, and outreach strategies, the EU can create inclusive pathways to education and employment for all young women, breaking down barriers and building a future of equal opportunities.