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- Drivers and vehicle operators: skills opportunities and challenges (2023 update)
Drivers and vehicle operators: skills opportunities and challenges (2023 update)
Summary
The distribution and transport sector is a crucial sector for the EU economy but also one of the heaviest polluters. In 2022, drivers and vehicle operators, who mainly work in the distribution and transport sector, accounted for around 4 per cent of the overall employment in the EU and represented the core of the workforce in the distribution and transport sector. They drive various forms of motor transportation vehicles (e.g. trains, buses, boats, trucks, taxis)to transport cargo or people, and drive, operate and monitor industrial and agricultural machinery and equipment. Jobs within this group include train drivers, dispatchers, and signalpersons, motorcycle delivery people, taxi, bus, tram, moving truck, and cargo vehicle drivers, and bulldozer and excavator operators. These workers are at the forefront of various measures that will be implemented in the future to achieve sustainable mobility within the EU.
Key facts
- Around 8.2 million people were employed as drivers and vehicle operators in 2022, which accounts for around 4 per cent of total EU employment in 2022.
- Between 2012 and 2022 drivers and vehicle operators’ employment increased by almost 5 per cent. Over the same period employment across all occupations in the EU increased by almost 8 per cent.
- Between 2019 and 2020, when many economic sectors in the EU, including also transportation, experienced lockdowns, 400 thousand driver and vehicle operator jobs were lost. Employment recovered somewhat in 2022, but by the end of that year it was still 120 thousand workers short of the pre Covid-19 level.
- Most drivers and vehicle operators – 54 per cent in 2021 - are employed in the transportation and storage sector. In 2021, they accounted for 42 per cent of employment in the transportation and storage sector.
- Nearly two thirds of drivers and vehicle operators (65 per cent) attained a qualification level of ISCED 3 (i.e. upper secondary education)and 4 (i.e. post-secondary non-tertiary education education) in 2021. The qualification level of the occupation is not expected to change over the period to 2035.
- Drivers and vehicle operators are mainly men. In 2021, less than 5 per cent of drivers and vehicle operators were women.
- The employment of drivers and vehicle operators is projected to decline slightly between 2022 and 2035. Over the same period, the overall employment is forecast to increase slightly.
- By 2035, there should be around 140 thousand drivers and vehicle operators’ jobs less compared with 2022. Despite this reduction, there will be a large number of drivers and vehicle operators’ jobs to be filled over the same period. This is because an estimated 5.4 million people are expected to leave the occupation mainly due to retirement. Considering also the job loss, this means that an estimated 5.2 million job openings will need to be filled between 2022 and 2035.
- Increased need for sustainable and low-carbon transportation, regulatory changes related to new shipping rules for, e.g., waste, new technologies -including autonomous vehicles- will drive changes in drivers’ and vehicle operators’ skills required in the future. Current shortages for certain jobs in this occupation puts the filling of future job openings at risk.
Employment and job demand
Employment trends for drivers and vehicle operators were almost identical to all plant and machine operator and assembler jobs in the past decade. Larger employment drops, such as the one during the Covid-19 pandemic, were compensated by faster recovery in the growth years.
Figure 1: Year-to-year employment change for drivers and vehicle operators (2013-2022) Source: European Labour Force Survey. Employed persons by detailed occupation (ISCO-08 two digit level) [LFSA_EGAI2D__custom_7778289]. Own calculations.
About half of drivers and vehicle operators (45 per cent) are engaged as heavy truck and bus drivers. These workers drive and tend heavy trucks, lorries, buses, or street tramcars. They transport goods, liquids, heavy materials, mail or passengers.
A quarter of drivers and vehicle operators are engaged as car, van, and motorcycle drivers who drive and tend motorcycles, cars or vans to transport passengers (e.g., taxi drivers), materials or goods (e.g., delivery people).
Overall, 22 per cent of drivers and vehicle operators are engaged as mobile plant operators. These are specialized in driving and operating special-purpose motorized machinery or equipment that is used for various purposes such as clearing land, digging and spreading earth, rock and similar materials as well as lifting heavy objects.
About 4 per cent of drivers and vehicle operators are engaged as Locomotive engine drivers and related workers. These are workers who drive or assist others in the driving of trains and related locomotive engines that transport passengers or cargo.
A small share of drivers and vehicle operators are engaged as ship’s deck crews and related workers. These carry out deck duties on board ships and similar duties on board other water-borne craft. Such duties include look-out watches at sea and when entering or leaving the harbour or other narrow waters, handling ropes and wires, and operating mooring equipment.
Over the period from 2016 to 2021, the share of employment accounted for by these five occupations has remained more or less stable.
Figure 2: Employment in drivers and vehicle operators’ jobs (in %)
Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.
The demand for drivers and vehicle operators, observed in online job advertisements, shows similar trends to their employment development, with heavy trucks and drivers being the most offered jobs, and even increasing over time. For more details on skills demand and job openings for this occupation, please access Cedefop’s Skills OVATE tool.
Figure 3: Online job advertisements for drivers and vehicle operators (2022, in %)
Source: Skills in Online Job Advertisements indicator based on Cedefop’s Skills OVATE. Own calculations. Note: Online job advertisements are by definition not equivalent to job vacancies. See Beręsewicz (2021) or Napierala et al. (2022).
The transportation and storage sector employs the majority of drivers and vehicle operators. In 2021, 54 per cent of drivers and vehicle operators were employed in the transportation and storage sector (see Figure 4). Notable shares of drivers and vehicle operators are also occupied within other three sectors namely the manufacturing sector (11 per cent in 2021), the wholesale and retail trade sector (9 per cent in 2021), and the construction sector (9 per cent in 2021).
Figure 4: The top sectors employing drivers and vehicle operators (in %)
Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.
As regards the share of drivers and vehicle operators within sectoral employment, these workers form a significant portion of the workforce in the transportation and storage sector - 42 per cent of its employment in 2021.
The share of employment in each country varies from almost 8 per cent in Romania or Bulgaria, to less than 3 per cent in Germany, Denmark or the Netherlands (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Drivers and vehicle operators as a share of overall country employment (2021, in %) Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.
Note: Data for CY, EE, IS, LV and LU have lower reliability because of the small sample size.
LFS data for MT are not available.
The workforce is composed mainly of men. In 2021, only 4 per cent of drivers and vehicle operators were women compared to 46 per cent in the economy as a whole. In 2016, the share of drivers and vehicle operators (i.e. 34 per cent) aged over 50 years old was quite high compared to the respective share across all occupations (23 per cent) (Figure 6). By 2021, the share of drivers and vehicle operators in this age group has increased to 37 per cent, while the share across all occupations has grown to 28 per cent.
Figure 6: Drivers and vehicle operators’ workforce by age (in %)
Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.
Involuntary temporary and part-time employment is markedly more widespread among drivers and vehicle operators than across all occupations (see Figure 7).
Figure 7: Contract and hiring trends for drivers and vehicle operators (in %) Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.
Skill needs and future trends
Three skills are more distinct for drivers and vehicle operators: lifting heavy loads, hazardous work and dealing with outsiders. The jobs are further characterised by under average exposure to digital technologies, but a bit better access to work related training.
Figure 8: Skills, training needs and job perception of drivers and vehicle operators (in %) Source: European Skills and Jobs Survey. Microdata. Own calculations.
Unless stated otherwise, it is a share of people reporting that a task/skill is part of their job.
*Always or often
** Share of workers reporting these needs to a great or moderate extent.
Cedefop’s Skills forecast provides a detailed view of the future demand for drivers and vehicle operators. Over the period from 2022 to 2035, employment of drivers and vehicle operators is expected to decline slightly and there will be about 140 thousand fewer drivers and vehicle operators’ jobs. Future employment change will vary country by country, and the countries experiencing employment growth will be almost equal to those exhibiting employment reduction. Figure 9 compares the employment growth experienced over the relatively recent past to that projected to take place in the future. Employment in twelve countries grew in the past decade and it is forecast to do so in the next decade as well. Romania and Luxemburg are among those with the highest past and expected future growths, while especially Germany and Italy represent the opposite trend.
Figure 9: Past and expected future employment trend of drivers and vehicle operators Source: European Labour Force Survey. Microdata. Cedefop Skills Forecast. Note: Data for CY, EE, IS, LV and LU have lower reliability because of the small sample size. LFS data for MT are not available.
However, new job creation or loss is not the main driver behind job demand. Most job openings are a result of people leaving them for other opportunities, or those leaving the labour market completely (retirements; parent leave, etc.). Replacing leaving workers is the only driver of future demand for drivers and vehicle operators and is quite substantial, as it is estimated at 5.4 million (Figure 10). Meeting this future demand may be challenging given the level of labour shortages currently reported for heavy truck and bus drivers (see below). Overall, when the expansion demand is added to the replacement demand, an estimated 5.2 million job openings for drivers and vehicle operators will need to be filled between 2022 and 2035.
Figure 10: Future job openings for drivers and vehicle operators (000s) Source: Future job openings indicator based on the Cedefop Skills Forecast. Own calculations.
More than 60 per cent of drivers and vehicle operators held medium-level qualifications in 2021 (i.e. at ISCED levels 3 or 4). This is not projected to change much by 2035. The share of workers with low levels of qualification (ISCED level 2 or lower) is projected to decrease from 27 per cent in 2022 to 16 per cent in 2035, while the share of highly qualified workers (i.e. those qualified at ISCED level 5 and over) is projected to increase from 8 per cent to 14 per cent over the same period.
Looking forward
Drivers and vehicle operators are a homogeneous group, differentiated mainly by the vehicle they use (such as vehicles for road transport, trains, industrial, agricultural or ship machinery). Their future skillsets will be affected by megatrends such as technological change (including digitalisation and automation), the green transition (including sustainable mobility), and the aging driver population. The future of drivers and vehicle operator jobs depends on the ability of the industry to pursue technological innovation in line with sustainability principles and to adequately tackle shortages in certain driver jobs.
- The distribution and transport sector has a central role in achieving the goals of recent European initiatives towards climate neutrality (most notably the European Green Deal). This has important implications for the future skillsets and the tasks performed for drivers and vehicle operators, 65 per cent of whom is occupied in this sector. As regards environmentally sustainable mobility, the Sustainable and Smart Mobility Strategy (2020) seeks to increase the uptake of zero-emission vehicles, develop alternative solutions for the public and businesses, support digitalisation and improve connectivity and access to different types of mobility. In the medium and long-term, the strategy foresees the increase in the volume of freight and passenger trains and an expansion of rail networks across Europe. The strategy also pursues a gradual increase in the use of electric vehicles. More and greener public transport and mobility via routes such as trains will need more drivers with adequate knowledge of operating sustainable transportation means.
- A recent agreement by the Commission to ban new combustion engine cars by 2035 highlights determination towards climate goals and indicates that drivers of various vehicles (buses, taxis, trucks and other transport vehicles) will need to quickly adapt to driving low- and zero-emission vehicles. Of course, driving skills will not be affected much, but other technical skills related to vehicle operation and micro-maintenance do differ.
- Transition to climate neutrality will also affect workers operating mobile plants in various industrial sites and agricultural fields. Initiatives such as the New Industrial Strategy for Europe, the Clean Steel Partnership, and the initiative on clean hydrogen will most likely result into new technologies being introduced in many manufacturing premises. As with drivers, the main technical skills of mobile plant operators who will engage with these technologies on an everyday basis will not change much. However, some technical knowledge and training will be required before the operator of, e.g., an electricity-powered excavator becomes competent in operating it.
- The green Deal is expected to bring about large investments and almost double employment in the Waste management sector, according to a recent Cedefop research. A part of these jobs will be drivers and operators of vehicles and other mobile plants in waste management and treatment sites. These workers may be required to undergo special training related to sustainability principles, while in the case of managing hazardous (e.g., chemical) waste, drivers are generally required to undergo training and comply with the most recent waste legislation. The Commission has recently proposed novel and stronger Waste shipment regulations. These will likely be part of future compulsory training for drivers and operators in EU waste facilities.
- Technological developments generate re-skilling needs for workers in this occupation, rather than a threat to employment. According to the European Commission Smart and Sustainable strategy, technologies such as AI, the Internet of Things, cloud and edge computing and 5G networks are driving the digital transformation in the mobility sector. Workers will need to adapt to the use of such new tools and software and work complementary to these. Automation increasingly infiltrates industries such as warehousing, making knowledge of and familiarity with new technologies and advanced machines a critical competence. The same holds true in the transport sector. Although nowadays autonomous vehicles may seem far from replacing human drivers, technologies such as ‘truck platooning’ (a technology that interconnects trucks transporting in an array with each other through state-of-the-art driving support) have the potential to change a truck driver’s everyday tasks and require additional training to be mastered. Self-driving vehicle technology (see the example below) is evolving at a fast pace.
Amid a global driver shortage, this Swedish firm is aiming to put self-driving trucks on the roads Scania is the first truck manufacturer in Europe that is piloting autonomous vehicles in delivery of commercial goods. ‘In the pilot project, the self-driving truck is covering a stretch of some 300 km between Södertälje and Jönköping in the south of Sweden, delivering fast-food goods. The lorry looks mostly non-descript from the outside save for a rail on the roof packed with sensors and cameras which allow it to safely manoeuvre itself. Inside the cab, the wheel and seats are where you'd expect to find them, but small devices and screens dot the dashboard and a nest of wires run to the computer rack housed behind the passenger seat. "If the road markings disappear for a while, then it will use the GPS and it stays perfectly in its lane," [the engineer] explains. "It drives better by itself than when you drive it manually," he adds. Initially, self-driving lorries will likely be used for long-haul trips, but the last-mile distribution to shops and customers "will happen with human drivers". Another benefit to the system is that computers don't need to sleep or rest, so the vehicles can be scheduled for trips at times when there is less traffic, or drive slower for longer, which can save on fuel. Source: Euronews & AFP, 2022. |
- Renewed interest in occupational health and safety considerations is particularly relevant for this occupational group. According to Eurostat estimates, plant and machine operators and assemblers, which include drivers and vehicle operators, have very high rates of work accidents. Drivers are also susceptible to other health and safety issues as well (see this report by the European Agency for Safety and Health at work). Many safety issues arise in mobile plants too. They frequently include lots of potentially hazardous equipment (e.g., excavators, cranes and dumper trucks), which can also become unsafe if not properly maintained (see this recent ERDB briefing note). EU policies such as the 2021-2027 EU strategic framework on health and safety at work will alter future regulations to improve prevention of workplace accidents and illnesses. Drivers and vehicle operations are not an exception. They already receive and will continue to get advanced and enhanced occupational health and safety training in the coming years.
- More specifically for drivers, the EU’s Mobility Package, adopted in 2020, sets up legislation on road transport like the posting of drivers, driving and rest time rules (see here for a summary of EU rules related to working in the road transport industry). These include obligations related to working and rest time, the use of tachographs, etc.
- As with Europe’s general population, (Eurostat, 2022), drivers in Europe are ageing and retiring. The average European truck drivers’ age is 47 years old, while the share of young drivers (below the age of 25) is only about 5 per cent. A recent report by the European Labour Authority found shortages in heavy truck and lorry drivers – which belong to the largest group among this occupation- across 16 EU Member States. In six of these, heavy truck and lorry drivers are cited as being in severe shortage. According to the International Road Transport Union (IRU) report, such shortages put an upwards pressure on wages and are a major explanation of why the transport sector has not yet recovered from the pandemics. In 2021, around 10 per cent (i.e.400 000 of truck driver positions) were unfilled in Europe and the number is set to increase. Improvement in working conditions is considered as the major factor that has the potential to tackle these pressing shortages. Meanwhile the shortage of drivers in the passenger travel industry is forecast to increase as well, albeit at a slower pace and lower level.
Most drivers and vehicle operators work in sectors where new business models are being shaped due to technological change and the green transition. Due to these new paradigms, job tasks are expected to increasingly depend more on ICT-based and specialised equipment and products, such as electronic tachographs for drivers and mobile plants operated via digital technology. The majority of drivers and vehicle operators have obtained secondary education, sometimes vocational training depending on their specialisation. The EU has established a system of vocational training and certification through the Directive 2022/2561 and Member States should issue a certificate of professional competence (CPC) to drivers to ensure their compliance with their obligations. In addition to initial training, drivers are also obliged to partake in periodic training throughout their careers to update essential knowledge on road safety, health and safety at work and on the reduction of the environmental impact of driving. The length and contents of training for drivers and machine operators depends on their specialisation. However, companies often provide training to ensure a sufficient level of qualification and skills through on the jobs training or apprenticeships. Apprenticeships are certified training programmes that combine on-the-job practical experiences with courses taken at school. For example, the TSR Recycling company in Germany, which deals with scrap steel and non-ferrous metals, offers a three year apprenticeship at the company to train truck drivers (see the example below).
Truck driver (apprenticeship, Germany multiple locations) The three-year apprenticeship involves skills development in multiple areas to enable future work opportunities in customer and service-oriented business environments. The apprentices will learn about the rules and regulations covering accident prevention, health and safety at work, environmental protection and waste laws as well as how to safely transport hazardous and non-hazardous waste. The apprentices will take their driving test to obtain the relevant license and they can choose to obtain a specialised license for the transport of dangerous goods. By the end of the course, drivers will be able to maintain the vehicles, spot malfunctions and repair minor faults. In addition, they will learn about logistics, workshop activities and commercial administration work. Source: TSR Recycling |
- In view of the changing world of driving, the tasks of future drivers and vehicle operators are set to diversify and require additional training. The European directive sets an obligation for periodic training through one’s career path for working drivers with CPC. For example, in France, drivers obtain further training through a programme called “Formation Continue Obligatoire” (FCO) (Compulsory Ongoing Training), which entails 35 hours (or 5 days) of yearly training for five years, as explained in the example below.
FCO Transport of goods (Montgeron, France) ECF Procondutie is one of the many certified training centres that provides the compulsory training for professional drivers. To comply with FCO requirements, drivers can choose from trainings crossing a wide variety of topics. For example:
Source: ECF Prodconduit |
In addition to compulsory continuous training, the labour market is increasingly integrating the principles of lifelong learning to ensure skills and competences’ development throughout the career trajectory. In this context, micro-credentials have emerged as an increasingly popular mode of skills development in various sectors. Micro-credentials are certified short-term learning experiences, which allow for people to upgrade their professional and personal skills, competences, and knowledge. Offered in flexible modes, micro-credentials usually focus on a specific theme or skillset, as the following example from Deutsche Bahn shows (see example below).
Introduction to dangerous cargo The Deutsche Bahn Rail Academy offers a variety of courses for employees from apprentice to executive level. This online course prepares workers to the precise handling and safe transportation of dangerous cargo. By the end of the training, workers will be able to:
Source: Deutsche Bahn |
How to cite this publication:
Cedefop (2023). Drivers and vehicle operators: skills opportunities and challenges. Skills intelligence data insight.
Further reading
Beręsewicz, M. and Pater, R. (2021). Inferring job vacancies from online job advertisements, Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-statistical-working-papers/-/ks-tc-20-008
Cedefop (2022). Microcredentials for labour market education and training: first look at mapping microcredentials in European labour-market-related education, training and learning: take-up, characteristics and functions. Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop research paper, No 87. http://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/351271
Cedefop et al. (2022). Built to last: apprenticeship vision, purpose, and resilience in times of crisis: short papers from the Cedefop community of apprenticeship experts. Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop working paper, No 12. http://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/449252
Euronews & AFP. ‘Amid a global driver shortage, this Swedish firm is aiming to put self-driving trucks on the roads’ Euronews.next: Mobility. November 30th, 2022
European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association. What is truck Platooning?
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (ERDB). Safe working with mobile plant. Briefing note. July 2021.
European Commission. A European approach to micro-credentials.
European Commission (2019). The European Green Deal. December 11th, 2019.
European Commission (2020). Sustainable and Smart Mobility Strategy – putting European transport on track for the future. December 9th, 2020.
European Commission (2021). Proposal for a regulation on shipments of waste and amending Regulations (EU) No 1257/2013 and (EU) No 2020/1056. COM(2021) 709 final.
European Commission (2022a). Key technologies to boost the digitalisation of transport. May 24th, 2022.
European Commission (2022b). DIRECTIVE (EU) 2022/2561 on the initial qualification and periodic training of drivers of certain road vehicles for the carriage of goods or passengers (codification). December 14th, 2022.
European Commission. EU rules for working in road transport. January 5th, 2023
European Labour Authority (2021). Report on labour shortages and surpluses.
Napierala, J.; Kvetan, V. and Branka, J. (2022). Assessing the representativeness of online job advertisements. Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop working paper, No 17. http://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/807500
IRU (International Road Transport Union) (2022). European Driver Shortage Report 2022: Understanding the impact of transport shortages in the industry. July 2022.
Data insights details
Table of contents
Page 1
SummaryPage 2
Employment and job demandPage 3
Skill needs and future trendsPage 4
Looking forwardPage 5
Further reading